National Trade Data Bank ITEM ID : ST BNOTES PAKISTAN DATE : Oct 28, 1994 AGENCY : U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE PROGRAM : BACKGROUND NOTES TITLE : Background Notes - PAKISTAN Source key : ST Program key : ST BNOTES Update sched. : Occasionally Data type : TEXT End year : 1992 Date of record : 19941018 Keywords 3 : Keywords 3 : | PAKISTAN US DEPARTMENT OF STATE PUBLISHED BY THE BUREAU OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS BACKGROUND NOTE: Pakistan, June 1992 Official Name: Islamic Republic of Pakistan PROFILE Geography Area: 803,943 sq. km. (310,527 sq mi.); about twice the size of California. Cities: Capital--Islamabad (pop. 400,000), combined with adjacent Rawalpindi, makes up a national capital area with a population in excess of 1.2 million; Karachi 7 million; Lahore 3.5 million; Faisalabad 2 million. People Nationality: Noun and adjective--Pakistan(i). Population: 117 million. Annual growth rate (mid-1988): 3%. Density: 134 per sq. km. (346 per sq. mi.). Ethnic groups: Punjabi, Sindhi, Pathan, Baluch, Muhajirs (i.e., Urdu-speaking immigrants from India). Religions: Muslim 97%; small minorities of Christians, Hindus, and others. Languages: Urdu (official), English, Punjabi, Sindhi, Pushtu, Baluchi. Education: Literacy--26%. Health: Infant mortality rate (1991)--109/1,000. Life expectancy (1991)--men 56 yrs., women 57 yrs. Work force: Agriculture--54%. Services--33%. Industry--13%. Government Type: Parliamentary democracy in a federal setting. Independence: August 14, 1947. Branches: Executive--president with constitutional authority, prime minister, cabinet. Legislative--National Assembly and Senate. Judicial--provincial high courts, Supreme Court, Federal Islamic Court. Political parties: The Islamic Democratic Alliance (IJI in Urdu), which includes the Pakistan Muslim League, and the Pakistan People's Party (PPP), are the most important on the national level. Other significant parties include the Muhajir Quami Movement (MQM), the Awami National Party (ANP), and the Jamiat-ul-Ulema-i-Islam (JUI). Suffrage: Universal adult over 21. Religious minorities and women vote for special reserved seats. Political subdivisions: Four provinces--Punjab, Sindh, Northwest Frontier, Baluchistan--each with a parliamentary system; Northern Areas; Tribal Areas; Federal Capital. Flag: White vertical band on staff side; green field with white crescent and star in center. Economy GNP (Pakistan fiscal year (FY) 1990): $43 billion. Annual growth rate 1990: 5%. Per capita GNP (FY1990): $380. Per capita growth rate (FY 1990): 2%. Natural resources: Arable land, natural gas, limited petroleum, substantial hydropower potential, coal, iron ore. Agriculture (26% of GNP): Products--wheat, cotton, rice, sugarcane. Industry (18% of GDP): Types--textiles, fertilizer, steel products, food processing, oil and gas products. Trade (Pakistan FY 1990): Exports--$4.9 billion: raw cotton, rice, cotton yarn, textiles, fruits, vegetables. Major partners--Japan, US, UK, Saudi Arabia, Germany. Imports--$6.3 billion: crude oil, cooking oil, fertilizers, machinery. Major partners--Japan, US, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, UK, Sri Lanka. Fiscal year: July 1-June 30. Official exchange rate (1991): about 22 rupees=US$1. Economic aid received: Total--about $36 billion (1947-85). US only (1981-87)--$3 billion; (1988-1993 est.)--$350 million annually. Major donors--(aid to Pakistan consortium--US, Canada, Japan, some West European countries), World Bank, Asian Development Bank, Saudi Arabia. PEOPLE Most Pakistanis live in Karachi, in the Indus River valley, and along an arc formed by the cities of Faisalabad, Lahore, Rawalpindi/Islamabad, and Peshawar. Punjabis are in the majority, with minorities of other Indo-European language-speaking peoples. The official language is Urdu; spoken as a first language by only 9% of Pakistanis; 65% speak Punjabi, 11% Sindhi, and 24% other languages (Saraiki, Baluchi, Brahui). Urdu, Punjabi, Pushtu, and Baluchi are of the Indo-European language group; Brahui is believed to have a Dravidian (pre-Indo-European) origin. English is widely used within the government, the military, and in many institutions of higher learning. The government plans gradually to replace English with Urdu in schools and to introduce Arabic for Islamic studies. HISTORY Archeology has revealed impressive ruins of a 4,500-year old urban civilization in Pakistan's Indus River valley. The reason for the total collapse of this highly developed culture is unknown. A major theory is that it was crushed by successive invasions of Aryans, Indo-European-speaking warrior tribes from the Caucasus region in what is now the Soviet Union. The Aryans, who quickly dominated the subcontinent, were followed in 500 BC by Persians and, in 326 BC, by Alexander the Great, conqueror of the Persian Empire. Pakistan's Islamic history began with the arrival of Muslim traders in the 8th century AD. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Mughuls (Persian for "Mongol") united most of South Asia in an empire marked both by its administrative effectiveness and cultural refinement. British traders arrived in the region in 1601, but the British Empire did not consolidate its control there until the latter half of the 18th century. After 1850, the British, or those influenced by them, governed virtually the entire subcontinent, including most of what is now Pakistan. In the early 20th century, Muslim and Hindu leaders began to press for a greater degree of independence. At the movement's forefront was the largely Hindu Indian National Congress. Growing concern about Hindu domination of the movement led Muslim leaders to form the All-India Muslim League in 1906. In 1913, the League formally adopted the same goal as the Indian National Congress: self-government for India within the British Empire. The Congress and the League were unable, however to agree on a formula to ensure the protection of Muslim religious, economic and political rights. Over the next two decades, mounting tension between Hindus and Muslims led to a series of bitter communal conflicts. Pakistan and Partition The idea of a separate Muslim state emerged in the 1930s. It gained popularity among Indian Muslims after 1936, when the Muslim League suffered a decisive electoral defeat in the first elections under the 1935 constitution. On March 23, 1940, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, leader of the Muslim League, publicly endorsed the "Pakistan Resolution," that called for the creation of an independent state in regions where Muslims were a majority. At the end of World War II, the United Kingdom, under considerable international pressure to reduce the size of its overseas empire, moved with increasing urgency to grant India independence. The Congress Party and the Muslim League could not, however, agree on the terms for drafting a constitution or establishing an interim government. In June 1947, the British Government declared that it would grant full dominion status to two successor states--India and Pakistan. Pakistan would consist of the contiguous Muslim-majority districts of western British India, plus parts of Bengal. The various princely states could freely join either India or Pakistan. These arrangements resulted in a bifurcated Muslim nation separated by more than 1,600 kilometers (1,000 mi.) of Indian territory when Pakistan became a self-governing dominion within the Commonwealth on August 14, 1947. West Pakistan comprised four provinces and the capital, Lahore. East Pakistan was formed of a single province. Each province had a legislature. After Independence Pakistan's history for the next 26 years was marked by political instability and economic difficulties. Dominion status was rejected in 1956 in favor of an "Islamic Republic within the Commonwealth." Attempts at civilian political rule failed, and the government imposed martial law between 1958 and 1962 and 1969 and 1972. Frictions between West and East Pakistan culminated in a 1971 army crackdown against the East Pakistan dissident movement led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, whose Awami League Party had won 167 seats out of 313 National Assembly seats on a platform of greater autonomy for the eastern province. Mujibur Rahman was arrested and his party banned. Many of his aides and more than 1 million Bengali refugees fled to India, where they established a provisional government. Tensions escalated and hostilities broke out between India and Pakistan in late November 1971. The combined Indian-Bengali forces soon overwhelmed Pakistan's small army contingent in the East. By the time Pakistan's forces surrendered on December 16, 1971, India had taken numerous prisoners and gained control of a large area of East Pakistan. The Years of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Pakistan's defeat in East Pakistan resulted in the fall of military strongman Yahya Khan on December 20, 1971. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, whose Pakistan People's Party (PPP) had won a majority of the seats in West Pakistan in the 1970 elections, replaced Yahya. East Pakistan gained independence as Bangladesh. Bhutto moved decisively to restore national confidence after the East Pakistan disaster. He pursued an active foreign policy, taking a leading role in Islamic and Third World forums. Although Pakistan did not join the Nonaligned Movement until the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) was dissolved in 1979 (after Bhutto's fall), its position on most issues coincided with the goals of the Non-Aligned Movement throughout Bhutto's tenure. Domestically, Bhutto cultivated the allegiance of both urban and rural poor. He nationalized major industries and the banking system and dramatically increased wages and benefits for lower income industrial workers. The government also instituted a land reform program and attempted to restructure the feudal social system still intact in many rural areas, but the results never met expectations. In 1973, Bhutto promulgated a new constitution approved by all political elements and stepped down as president to become prime minister. Although Bhutto never departed from his populist and reformist rhetoric, he increasingly relied for support on Pakistan's urban industrialists and rural landlords. His rule also grew more authoritarian and capricious. Over time the economy stagnated, largely as a result of the dislocation and uncertainty created by Bhutto's frequently changing economic policies. When Bhutto called for elections in March 1977, nine leading opposition parties--from the secularist, pro-autonomy National Democratic Party (which enjoyed significant support in the Northwest Frontier and Baluchistan) to the conservative, religious Jamaat-i-Islami--joined to form the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA). The PNA focused its campaign on the alleged inefficiency, corruption, and immorality of the Bhutto regime. Its attack seemed to strike a responsive chord, and the outcome of the elections appeared uncertain. After Bhutto claimed a victory with two-thirds of the National Assembly seats in the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) hands, the opposition PNA denounced the election as a fraud and demanded new elections. Bhutto resisted and, after a wave of violence swept the country, arrested the PNA leadership. 1977 Martial Law The army grew restive in its role as enforcer of civil order in the face of increasing anti-government unrest. On July 5, 1977, the military removed Bhutto from power, declared martial law, and suspended portions of the 1973 constitution. Chief of Army Staff Gen. Muhammad Zia Ul-Haq became Chief Martial Law Administrator and promised to hold new elections within 90 days. Initially, Zia claimed that he had not directed his action against Bhutto and that Bhutto could contest the election scheduled for October 1977. However, after it had become clear that Bhutto's popularity had survived his government, Zia reversed his decision. Acting in his role as Martial Law Administrator, Zia postponed the October 1977 elections and began criminal investigations of the senior PPP leadership. Bhutto, released from house arrest earlier along with other political leaders, was re-arrested, tried, and convicted for conspiracy to murder a political opponent, whose father was killed in the murder attempt. The Supreme Court upheld the verdict and death sentence, and, despite international appeals on his behalf, Bhutto was hanged on April 6, 1979. After backing away from his initial commitment to hold elections within 90 days, Zia began to institutionalize his regime. He created an Advisory Council formed mostly of technocrats and government servants. In August 1978, representatives of several political parties were added to the council, redesigned as a cabinet. Following the resignation of President Choudhury in September, Zia assumed the presidency and called elections for November. As the elections neared, it became clear that the PNA had fallen into disarray and the PPP was once more the strongest party nationwide. Fearful of a PPP victory, Zia banned political activity in October 1979 and postponed the national elections. Only the elections for local bodies were held, and these took place on a non-party basis. In 1980, most center and left parties, led by the PPP, formed the Movement for the Restoration of Democracy (MRD). The MRD demanded Zia's resignation, an end to martial law, new elections, and restoration of the 1973 constitution as it existed before Zia's takeover. In early December 1984, President Zia proclaimed a national referendum for December 19, asking voters to approve his program for Islamization. He also declared that if voters passed the referendum, they would approve his continuation in office for 5 years from the first sitting of the next National Assembly. Zia's opponents, led by the MRD, called for a boycott. Subsequently, the government claimed a 63% turnout, with more than 90% approving the referendum. Many outside the government questioned these figures. Capitalizing on his referendum victory, President Zia announced national and provincial assembly elections for February 1985. Candidates were required to run on a non-party basis but were not disqualified because of past party affiliation. Perhaps misjudging the effectiveness of its referendum boycott and the appeal of new elections, the MRD again urged the voters to stay home. However, several conservative and religious parties, including the Pakistan Muslim League faction headed by the Pir of Pagaro and the Jam-aat-i-Islami, endorsed the balloting. The MRD suffered numerous defections, as politicians abandoned their parties to stand for office. The boycott failed, and most independent observers vouch for the claimed 53% turnout for the National Assembly balloting (with a slightly higher percentage of voter turnout in the provincial elections). The elections generally were free of fraud (as evidenced by the defeat of 5 serving members of Zia's Cabinet). The boycott failure accentuated divisions within the MRD and left Zia's opposition in further disarray. On March 3, 1985, President Zia proclaimed constitutional changes designed to increase the power of the president vis-a-vis the prime minister. (Under the 1973 constitution the president's role was largely that of a figurehead.) Subsequently, Zia named Muhammad Khan Junejo, a Muslim League member, as his choice for prime minister. The new National Assembly met for the first time on March 23, 1985, and unanimously endorsed Junejo as prime minister. The ensuing National Assembly session was dominated by the debate over President Zia's proposed eighth amendment to the constitution that would legitimate the actions of the martial law government and exempt them (including decisions of the military courts) from judicial review. The amendment passed in October 1985, after a compromise was reached on a series of modifications restoring some powers to the prime minister. The Return of Democracy On December 30, 1985, President Zia lifted martial law and restored all the constitutional rights safeguarded under the 1973 constitution. He also lifted the Bhutto government's declaration of emergency powers. The first months of 1986 witnessed a rebirth of political activity throughout Pakistan. All parties--including those continuing to deny the legitimacy of the Zia/Junejo government--were permitted to organize and hold rallies. In April 1986, PPP leader Benazir Bhutto, daughter of the deposed prime minister, returned to Pakistan from exile in Europe. Following the lifting of martial law, Prime Minister Junejo launched a concerted effort to strengthen his Pakistan Muslim League (PML), which was registered as an official party in February 1986, as a political force capable of contending with the PPP and its MRD allies on a national level. Prime Minister Junejo's increasing independence eventually led to a rift with President Zia. There were also differences between them on Pakistan's Afghan policy. Zia was an unabashed and outspoken supporter of the Afghan Resistance, which had been fighting occupying Soviet forces since those forces invaded Afghanistan in 1980. Junejo repeatedly expressed his concern over the effect the conflict, and particularly the presence of 3 million Afghan refugees in Pakistan, might have on Pakistan's internal security. On May 29, 1988, President Zia, citing corruption and the prime minister's reluctance to support his Islamization policies, dismissed the Junejo government and called elections for November. In June, Zia proclaimed that Sharia (Islamic law) would be supreme in Pakistan and all civil law must agree with traditional Muslim edicts. On August 17, a military aircraft carrying Zia, American Ambassador Arnold Raphel, chief of the US military aid mission to Pakistan Brig. Gen. Herbert Wassom, and 28 Pakistani military officers, crashed while returning from a military equipment trial near Bahawalpur. All on board were killed. President of the Senate Ghulam Ishaq Khan assumed the presidency in accordance with the constitution. President Khan announced almost immediately that the elections, scheduled for November, would go forward as planned. The Supreme Court, which had played a very limited role under Zia, made a series of decisions during the summer of 1988 that helped ensure the democratic character of the November balloting. Observers judged the National Assembly elections on November 16 to have been the fairest and most orderly in Pakistan's history. The PPP won 93 of the 205 seats contested. The Islamic Democratic Alliance, a coalition including the Pakistan Muslim League, ran a distant second, winning 55 seats. The PPP in conjunction with several smaller parties built a viable coalition; on December 1, President Ghulam Ishaq Khan formally requested PPP leader Benazir Bhutto to form a government. Differing interpretations of constitutional authority and responsibility hindered Pakistan's efforts to develop democratic institutions throughout the 20 months of Ms. Bhutto's tenure. A constitutional debate over the powers of the president and prime minister was caused in part by changes made in the constitution by the late President Zia. There was also a debate over the powers of the central government versus those of the provinces. Political differences between the Bhutto administration and opposition governments in Punjab and Baluchistan seriously impeded social and economic reform programs. Ethnic divisions, primarily in Sindh, exacerbated the problems caused by strong political, constitutional, and regional differences. The result of these differences, plus the weakness of central and provincial law enforcement agencies and the superabundance of weapons, was a serious deterioration in law and order. On August 6, 1990, President Khan, pursuant to his powers under the constitution, dismissed the Bhutto government and dissolved the National Assembly. The provincial assemblies were also dissolved. The president called for elections to be held on October 24 for the National Assembly and October 27 for provincial assemblies. Caretaker governments were formed at the center and in the four provinces. A state of emergency was declared to enable the president to administer in the absence of the assemblies. Special tribunals, as provided for under the law, were established to try politicians accused of corruption or misconduct while in office during the period since December 1988. Civilian administrators and the courts continued to function, and the basic rights guaranteed under the constitution were untouched. The elections were held as scheduled and were observed by a number of international teams. Although marred by some irregularities, they were considered to have been generally free and fair. On November 6, Muhammad Nawaz Sharif, leader of the Islamic Jamhoori Ittehad (IJI) was overwhelmingly elected prime minister by the members of the assembly. His first official act as prime minister was to lift the state of emergency. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS The constitution of August 14, 1973, as amended in 1985, provides for a president (chief of state) elected by an electoral college (consisting of the Senate, National Assembly, and the members of the provincial assemblies), and a prime minister--(head of government) nominated by the president and elected by the National Assembly in special session. Following the election, the prime minister is invited by the president to form the government. The National Assembly--217 members elected by universal adult suffrage (207 Muslims and 10 non-Muslims)--has a 5-year term subject to dissolution. In 1990, a constitutional provision which established 20 reserved seats for women lapsed, and has not been renewed. The Senate, not subject to dissolution, consists of 84 members elected indirectly for 6 years by the provincial assemblies and tribal councils; plus three members elected from the federal area of Islamabad, as determined by the president. Half of the members stand for reelection every 3 years. The constitution permits a vote of "no confidence" against the prime minister by a majority of the total assembly membership, provided that the assembly is not in the annual budget session. Two lists--federal and concurrent--specify jurisdiction on legislative subjects; all residual powers belong to the provinces. According to the 1973 constitution, the president, after consultation with the prime minister, appoints provincial governors, who act on the advice of the cabinet or chief minister of the province. Each province has a high court, with the justices appointed by the president after consultation with the chief justice of the Supreme Court, the provincial governor, and the provincial chief justice. Pakistan's highest court is the Supreme Court. The president appoints the chief justice and, in consultation with him, the remaining justices. During the martial law period, the powers and independence of the civilian judiciary were curtailed. Various martial law decrees extended the jurisdiction of military tribunals and prohibited the civilian judiciary from reviewing the procedures and decisions of military courts. Principal Government Officials President--Ghulam Ishaq Khan Prime Minister--Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif Minister of State for Foreign Affairs--Muhhamad Siddique Khan Kanju Ambassador to the US--Syeda Abida Hussain Ambassador to the UN--Jamsheed Marker Pakistan maintains an embassy in the United States at 2315 Massachusetts Avenue, NW., Washington, DC 20008 (tel. 202-939-6200). ECONOMY Pakistan is a relatively poor country but has the resources and entrepreneurial skill to support rapid economic growth. In fact, real growth of gross domestic product (GDP) averages 8% per year over the decade of the 1980s (fiscal years 1981-90), with generally moderate inflation. Growing fiscal imbalances, however, pushed the budget and current account deficits to unsustainable levels by decade's end. Economic growth has slowed in recent years; real GDP expanded 5% in FY 1990 and about 6% in FY 1991. Measures adopted under a 4-year, IMF-sponsored structural adjustment program (FY 1989-92) have improved fiscal and monetary conditions, and eased the foreign exchange gap on the balance of payments. But deficit financing has substantially increased the government's domestic and external debt burdens. Domestic debt service payments, for example, consumed 32% of current expenditures in the FY 1991 budget (defense spending took another 43%). In FY 1991, the Government of Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif launched an ambitious program of privatization, deregulation, and economic reform. Despite a slow start and resistance from the bureaucracy and labor unions, the government is pushing ahead with the denationalization of banks, industrial firms, and utilities. In addition, the government has eased controls on foreign exchange, removed barriers to foreign investment, and liberalized foreign access to Pakistan's growing capital market. The Prime Minister's reform program has accelerated the trend toward private enterprise and a market economy already underway for a decade. For example, investment in manufacturing in FY 1981 was fairly equally divided between the public and private sectors. But in 1991, private investment was more than 12 times higher than in the public sector. The government envisions the virtual elimination of public sector involvement in manufacturing by the end of FY 1992. Nonetheless, Pakistan still has a long way to go in terms of economic development. With per capita GNP of about $380, the World Bank ranks Pakistan as a low-income country roughly on a par with China and India. Only about 26% of adults are literate, and life expectancy at birth is about 56 years. The population, currently about 117 million, is estimated to be growing at about 3% per year, and is expected to double within 20 years. Relatively few resources have been devoted to socioeconomic development (especially education, health, and population programs) or infrastructure projects. Development accounted for 28% of total expenditures in the FY 1991 budget. Agriculture and Natural Resources The country's principal natural resource is its arable land (25% of the total land area is under cultivation). Agriculture accounts for about 26% of GDP and employs more than 50% of the labor force. Pakistan boasts the largest contiguous irrigation system in the world, making cultivation possible in semi-arid regions of the country. The most important crops include wheat, cotton, and rice, which together account for almost 70% of total crop output by value. Intensive farming practices have enabled Pakistan to become a net food exporter. Pakistan exports rice, fish, fruits, and vegetables, and imports wheat, vegetable oil, and sugar. Pakistan has extensive energy resources, including fairly sizable natural gas reserves, some proven oil reserves, and large hydropower potential. Exploitation of energy resources has been slow, however, and domestic demand for power continues to outstrip supply. The government is developing new thermal and hydro-power generation capability and is encouraging private investment in power development, with some support by foreign donor agencies. Petroleum production, in which foreign oil companies participate, totals about 65,000 barrels per day out of a total requirement of 125,000 barrels per day. Coal is also mined in Pakistan, with production reaching about 267,000 tons in FY 1991. Industry Cotton textile and apparel manufacturing is Pakistan's largest industry, accounting for nearly 20% of total manufacturing output and almost 40% of total exports. Other major industries include cement, fertilizer, edible oil, sugar, steel, machinery, and food processing. Large-scale manufacturing units account for about 70% of total output value. The public sector, which includes many enterprises nationalized in the 1970s, produced about 30% of FY 1991 manufacturing output. The public sector share, however, is expected to decline sharply as state industrial units are sold to private investors. Foreign Trade Strong export performance and moderate import growth during FY 1991 significantly improved Pakistan's balance of payments. Pakistan's exports are dominated by cotton textiles and apparel, rice, leather products, surgical and sports equipment, and carpets. Major imports include petroleum and petroleum products, edible oil, chemicals, fertilizer, capital goods, industrial raw materials, and consumer products. Despite the impact of temporarily higher oil prices and the loss of some 100,000 Pakistani jobs in Kuwait and Iraq as a result of the Gulf crisis, the FY 1991 current account deficit declined to $1.5 billion, down from nearly $2 billion in FY 1989. Amortization of Pakistan's large but manageable external debt burden (about $25 million) consumed about 26% of export earnings in FY 1991. Pakistan receives about $2 billion per year in loan/grant assistance from international financial institutions (IMF, World Bank, Asian Development Bank) and bilateral donors, including the US Agency for International Development (US aid is currently suspended because of concerns about Pakistan's nuclear program). DEFENSE Pakistan's 500,000-member armed forces, the world's 11th largest, are well trained and disciplined. Pakistan operates military equipment from several foreign sources--the United States, China, France, the United Kingdom, and others. Much of this equipment is outdated. Pakistan's extensive efforts to modernize its defense capability are frustrated by its limited industrial base and fiscal resources. Until 1990, a portion of US aid to Pakistan was used to help modernize Pakistan's conventional defensive capability. The United States allocated about 40% of its current (1988-93) assistance package to nonreimbursable credits for military purchases. The remainder of the program is devoted to economic assistance. The ratio of military assistance to economic assistance has decreased slightly in recent years, at the request of the Government of Pakistan. Military aid and other assistance was suspended in October 1990 due to the Administration's inability to certify under the Pressler amendment to the Foreign Assistance Act (Section 620E(e)) that "Pakistan does not possess a nuclear explosive device and that the proposed United States assistance package will reduce significantly the risk that Pakistan will possess a nuclear explosive device." FOREIGN RELATIONS Pakistan is a non-aligned country, a prominent member of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), and an active UN member. In 1989, Pakistan rejoined the Commonwealth. Its foreign policy encompasses historically difficult relations with India, a desire for a stable Afghanistan, long-standing close relations with China, extensive security and economic interests in the Persian Gulf (including cordial relations with Iran), and wide-ranging bilateral relations with the United States. India Relations between Pakistan and India reflect centuries-old Muslim-Hindu rivalries and suspicions. Although many issues divide the two countries, the most sensitive one since independence has been the status of Kashmir. At the time of partition, Kashmir, although ruled by a Hindu maharajah, had an overwhelmingly Muslim population. When the maharajah hesitated in acceding to either Pakistan or India in 1947, some of his Muslim subjects, aided by tribesmen from Pakistan, revolted in favor of joining Pakistan. The Kashmiri ruler offered his state to India in return for military aid in crushing the revolt. Indian troops occupied the eastern portion of Kashmir, including its capital, Srinigar, while the western half came under Pakistani control. India took this dispute to the United Nations on January 1, 1948. One year later, the United Nations arranged a cease-fire along a line dividing Kashmir roughly in half but leaving the northern end of the line undemarcated and the Vale of Kashmir (with the majority of the population) under Indian control. India and Pakistan agreed to hold a UN-supervised plebiscite to determine the state's future, but India did not fulfill this commitment. Full-scale hostilities erupted in September 1965, when India alleged that terrorists trained and supplied by Pakistan were operating in India-controlled Kashmir. Hostilities ceased 3 weeks later, following mediation efforts by the United Nations and friendly nations. In January 1966, Indian and Pakistani representatives met in Tashkent, USSR, and agreed to work for a peaceful settlement of the Kashmir dispute and other differences. Following the 1971 crisis in East Pakistan, which led to the war that ended with the emergence of independent Bangladesh, President Bhutto and Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi met in the mountain town of Simla, India, in July 1972. They agreed on the withdrawal of forces from occupied territories, the determination of a line control in Kashmir, and settlement of bilateral disputes through peaceful means. In 1974, Pakistan and India agreed to re-establish postal and telecommunications links and measures to facilitate travel. After a hiatus of 5 years, trade and diplomatic relations were restored in 1976. Strains in bilateral relations continue over defense and internal security matters, communal concerns, and economic issues. India's self-proclaimed "peaceful nuclear explosion" in 1974 led to great uncertainty in Pakistan, and is generally acknowledged to have been the impetus for Pakistan's alleged clandestine nuclear research. In 1983, the two nations exchanged charges that each was aiding the other's separatists, i.e., Sikhs in India's (east) Punjab State and Sindhis in Pakistan's Sindh Province. In addition, conflict arose between Indian and Pakistani troops in the remote Siachin Glacier region of northern Kashmir, while New Delhi sharpened its criticism of what it alleged was Pakistan's clandestine nuclear weapons program. Tensions diminished after Rajiv Gandhi replaced his assassinated mother as Indian Prime Minister in November 1984 and a group of Sikh hijackers was brought to trial by Pakistan in March 1985. In December 1985, President Zia and Prime Minister Gandhi pledged that neither would launch a first strike against the other's nuclear facilities. A formal "no first strike" agreement was signed in January 1991. High-level talks began in early 1986 to resolve the Siachin Glacier border dispute and to improve trade. Bilateral tensions rose again in early 1990 as Kashmiri militants challenged the authority of the Indian Government. Subsequent frequent bilateral meetings on high levels have helped lay the groundwork for improvement in the relationship. These issues, and particularly unrest in Indian-controlled Kashmir and in India's (east) Punjab State, are likely to continue to dominate Indo-Pakistani relations. Afghanistan Pakistan played a vital role in supporting Afghan Resistance fighters following the 1980 Soviet invasion. In the wake of the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in February 1989, Pakistan remained an important source of support for the Afghan Resistance. More than 3 million Afghan refugees are in Pakistan, but are returning in increasing numbers. Pakistan, in cooperation with the world community, undertook a massive relief effort to care for the refugees. The United States has provided nearly $500 million in humanitarian assistance for Afghan refugees in Pakistan, mainly through multilateral organizations. The Former Soviet Union Under military leaders Ayub Khan, Pakistan sought to improve relations with Moscow; trade and cultural exchanges between the two countries increased between 1966 and 1971. With the beginning of the East Pakistan crisis in March 1971, however, Soviet criticism of Pakistan's position cooled relations; and many Pakistanis believed that the August 1971 Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Peace and Cooperation encouraged Indian belligerency. Subsequent Soviet arms sales amounting to billions of dollars on concessional terms to India--in addition to all the Soviet arms sales throughout the 1960s--reinforced this view. During the 1980s, tensions increased between the Soviet Union and Pakistan, because of the latter's key role in organizing political and material support for the Afghan rebel forces. As the Soviet withdrawal neared, the Soviet Government increased its attempts to intimidate Pakistan. Changes in the former Soviet Union will probably lead to improved bilateral relations. People's Republic of China Pakistan recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1950 and was among the first countries to do so. Following the Sino-Indian hostilities of 1962, Pakistan's relations with China grew much closer, and the two countries have concluded a variety of agreements and regularly exchange high-level visits. China has provided economic, military, and technical assistance to Pakistan. Good relations with China have been essential to Pakistan's foreign policy. Pakistan views the PRC as a regional counterweight to India and the former Soviet Union, and the PRC strongly supported Pakistan's opposition to Soviet involvement in Afghanistan. Iran and the Persian Gulf Pakistan has long-standing geopolitical, historical, and cultural-religious ties with Iran. The two countries enjoy cordial relations. Despite popular support for Iraq, the Pakistani Government supported the coalition against Iraq's invasion of Kuwait and sent 11,600 troops to defend Saudi Arabia. Pakistan's relations with Iran are tempered by its extensive ties to Saudi Arabia and other Arab Persian Gulf states. Pakistan provides military personnel to strengthen Gulf state defenses and to reinforce its own security interest`s in the area. Nevertheless, Pakistan pursues an active diplomatic relationship with Iran. US-PAKISTAN RELATIONS The United States and Pakistan established diplomatic relations in 1947. With the US agreement to provide economic and military aid in 1954 and Pakistan's participation in the Baghdad Pact/-CENTO and SEATO, relations between the two nations grew close. During the 1965 Indo-Pakistani war, however, the United States suspended military assistance to both sides. The suspension of aid affected Pakistan much more severely than it did India and generated a widespread feeling that the United States was not a reliable ally. As time passed, relations gradually improved, and arms sales were renewed in 1975. In November 1979, false reports that the United States had participated in the seizure of the grand mosque in Mecca led to a mob attack on the US Embassy in Islamabad. Despite calls for help, the slow reaction of police authorities allowed time for the embassy to be burned. Six persons died, four of them US nationals. The American cultural centers in Rawalpindi and Lahore also were destroyed. Despite an apology from the Pakistan Government, and its agreement to pay for reconstruction of the Embassy, relations between the countries reached an all-time low. At the time of the incident, US assistance to Pakistan also had been suspended because of concerns about Pakistan's nuclear program. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 highlighted the common interest of Pakistan and the United States in peace and stability in South Asia. In 1981, the bilateral relationship entered a new phase. The United States and Pakistan agreed on a multi-year, $3.2-billion military and economic aid program aimed at helping Pakistan deal with the heightened threat to security in the region and its economic development problems. Citing overriding national security concerns and accepting Pakistan's assurances that it was not seeking to construct a nuclear weapon, Congress waived restrictions (Symington amendment) on aid to Pakistan. In March 1986, the two countries agreed on a second multi-year (FY 1988-93) $4 billion economic development and security assistance program. Implementation of this program is contingent upon year-by-year congressional approval, a renewal of the current Symington amendment waiver, and annual certification by the President that Pakistan does not possess a nuclear explosive device (the Pressler amendment). As of October 1, 1990, the US suspended all forms of economic and military assistance to Pakistan because of concerns about the development of Pakistan's nuclear program. Talks continue between the two sides. Principal US Officials Ambassador--Nicholas Platt Deputy Chief of Mission--A. Elizabeth Jones Defense Representative--Brig. Gen. John Howard Director, USAID Mission--James Norris Counselor for Political Affairs--Edward F. Fugit Counselor for Economic Affairs--Lawrence Benedict Public Affairs Officer--William R. Lenderking Consul--Karen M. Stanton Consul General, Karachi--Richard Faulk Consul General, Lahore--Laurie Johnston Consul, Peshawar--Richard Smyth The US Embassy is located at the Diplomatic Enclave, Ramna 5, Islamabad (tel. [92]-(51)-826161 through 79; telex 82-5-864). Travel Notes Visas must be obtained before traveling to Pakistan. The land border with India is open to travelers at Wagah (between Lahore and Amritsar) only on certain days of the week. India and Pakistan require that all cars entering at the border be covered by an international Carnet de Passage. Four-wheel drive vehicles are recommended for some highways such as the Karakoram Highway, connecting Pakistan with China through the Khunjerab Pass. Travelers on this route must obtain visas and make arrangements through local authorities. Travelers should note travel advisories, especially warnings about travel in rural Sindh.